(16) The Founders' Constitution，ed．Philip Kurland and Ralph Lerner（Chicago，1987），3:280．
(17) Founders'Constitution，3: 279—281．Cf．George Van Cleve，A Slaveholders’ Union: Slavery，Politics，and the Constitution in the Early American Republic（Chicago，2010）．
(18) Hazel Dicken-Garcia，To Western Woods: The Breckinridge Family Moves to Kentucky in 1793（Rutherford，NJ，1991）; 177—178; CHSUS，1: Aa3644—3744．
(19) Aron，How the West Was Lost，82—95; Frederika Teute，“Land，Liberty，and Labor in the Post-Revolutionary Era: Kentucky as the Promised Land”（PhD diss.，Johns Hopkins University，1988），102—130，185，227—275; Watlington，Partisan Spirit，220—222; David Rice，Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy; Proved by a Speech Delivered in the Convention，Held at Danville，Kentucky（Philadelphia，1792）; John Craig Hammond，Slavery，Freedom，and Expansion in the Early American West（Charlottesville，VA，2007）; John Craig Hammond，“Slavery，Settlement，and Empire: The Expansion and Growth of Slavery in the Interior of the North American Continent，1770—1820，”JER 32，no．2（2012）: 175—206．
(20) Dicken-Garcia，To Western Woods，177—178; Marion Nelson Winship，“Kentucky in the New Republic: A Study of Distance and Connection，” in Craig Thompson Friend，ed.，Buzzel About Kentuck: Settling the Promised Land（Lexington，KY，1998），100—123; Gail S．Terry，“Sustaining the Bonds of Kinship in a Trans-Appalachian Migration: The Cabell-Breckinridge Slaves Move West，”Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 102（1994）: 455—476．
(21) Francis Fedric，Slave Life in Virginia and Kentucky，Or，Fifty Years of Slavery…（London，1853），15．
(22) Terry，“Sustaining the Bonds of Kinship，”465—466．
(23) Fedric，Slave Life，15—17; Dicken-Garcia，To Western Woods，116—118，173; Daniel Drake，Pioneer Life in Kentucky: A Series of Reminiscential Letters（Cincinnati，1870），176—177．
(24) Fedric，Slave Life，16; Washington（PA）Herald of Liberty，September 2，1799．
(25) Stanley Harrold，Border War: Fighting over Slavery Before the Civil War（Chapel Hill，NC，2010）; Philadelphia Advertiser，February 17，1792．
(26) William Hayden，Narrative of William Hayden，Containing a Faithful Account of His Travels for Many Years Whilst a Slave（Cincinnati，1846），20—26; Teute，“Land，Liberty，and Labor，”209—210．
(27) Teute，“Land，Liberty，and Labor，”212; Monica Najar，“‘Meddling with Emancipation’: Baptists，Authority，and the Rift over Slavery in the Upper South，”JER 25，no．2（2005）: 157—186．
(28) Barbara Fields，Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century（New Haven，CT，1985）; Seth Rockman，Scraping By: Wage Labor，Slavery，and Survival in Early Baltimore（Baltimore，2009）; Max Grivno，Gleaning's of Freedom: Free and Slave Labor Along the Mason-Dixon Line，1790—1860（Urbana，IL，2011）; Jennifer Hull Dorsey，Hirelings: African American Workers and Free Labor in Early Maryland（Ithaca，NY，2011）; US Bureau of the Census，Negro Population，1790—1815（Washington，DC，1918），57．
(29) Ball，Slavery in the United States，36．
(30) Leonard Black，The Life and Suffering's of Leonard Black，a Fugitive from Slavery（New Bedford，CT，1847），24—26; Ball，Slavery in the United States，15—18; Thomas Culbreth to Gov．Maryland，February 21，1824，818—819，in “Estimates of the Value of Slaves，1815，”AHR 19（1914）: 813—838．
(31) David Smith，Biography of the Rev. David E. Smith of the A. M. E. Church（Xenia，OH，1881），11—14; William Grimes，Life of William Grimes，Written by Himself（New York，1825），22; cf．Abraham Johnstone，The Address of Abraham Johnstone，a Black Man Who Was Hanged at Woodbury，N.J.（Philadelphia，1797）; Michael Tadman，“The Hidden History of Slave-Trading in Antebellum South Carolina: John Springs III and Other ‘Gentlemen Dealing in Slaves，’”South Carolina Historical Magazine 97（1996）: 6—29，esp．22．For the complex origins of the cotton gin，see Joyce Chaplin，An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South，1730—1815（Chapel Hill，NC，2013）; Angela Lakwete，Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America（Baltimore，2003）．
(32) Cf．New York Advertiser，September 24，1790．
(33) “Charleston”from Pennsylvania Packet，February 25，1790; C．Peter Magrath，Yazoo: Law and Politics in the New Republic: The Case of Fletcher v. Peck（Providence，RI，1966），2—5．
(34) Jane Kamensky，The Exchange Artist: A Tale of High-Flying Speculation and America's First Banking Collapse（New York，2008）; “Charleston” from Pennsylvania Packet，February 25，1790．
(35) Shaw Livermore，“Early American Land Companies: Their Influence on Corporate Development”（PhD diss.，Columbia University，1939）．
(36) Magrath，Yazoo，6—19; Kamensky，Exchange Artist，35—36．
(37) John Losson to John Smith，1786，Pocket Plantation Papers，RASP．Series E．
(38) G．Melvin Herndon，“Samuel Edward Butler of Virginia Goes to Georgia，1784，”GHQ 52（1968）: 115—131，esp．123; “The Diary of Samuel E．Butler，1784—1786，and the Inventory and Appraisement of his Estate，”ed．G．Melvin Herndon，GHQ 52（1968）: 208—209，214—215; Heads of Families at the First Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1790（Washington，DC，1908），32; Grimes，Life，25; Cf．Thomas Johnson，Africa for Christ: Twenty Eight Years a Slave（London，1892），10—11; Moses Grandy，Life of Moses Grandy，Late a Slave in the United States of America（Boston，1844），55—56; Hayden，Narrative，57—59; Julius Melbourn，Life and Opinions of Julius Melbourn（Syracuse，NY，1847），9—10; James Pennington，The Fugitive Blacksmith（London，1849），vi，24，82; James Watkins，Narrative of the Life of James Watkins，Formerly a“Chattel”in Maryland（Bolton，UK，1852），26; Lewis Charlton，Sketches of the Life of Mr. Lewis Charlton（Portland，ME，n．d．），1; James Williams，Life and Adventures of James Williams，a Fugitive Slave（San Francisco，1873），11．
(39) For definition of “coffle，”see Oxford English Dictionary Online，[domain]．
(40) James Kirke Paulding，Letters from the South，Written During an Excursion in the Summer of 1816（New York，1817），126—127．
(41) Grimes，Life，22; Alexandria Gazette，June 22，1827; Damian Alan Pargas，“The Gathering Storm: Slave Responses to the Threat of Interregional Migration in the Early Nineteenth Century，”Journal of Early American History 2，no．3（2012）: 286—315; Frederic Bancroft，Slave-Trading in the Old South（Baltimore，1931），23—24 Some of the chains were literally repurposed from Atlantic slave-trading vessels．See Gardner，Dean，to Phillips，Gardner，April 10，1807，Slavery Collection，NYHS．
(42) New Hampshire Gazette，October 13，1801; Alexandria Times，January 10，1800．
(43) ASAI，69—70; John Brown，Slave Life in Georgia（London，1855），17—18．
(44) Parker Autobiography，Rankin-Parker Papers，Duke; “Aaron，”The Light and Truth of Slavery（Springfield，MA，1845）．
(45) Matthew Mason，Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic（Chapel Hill，NC，2006）; John C．Hammond and Matthew Mason，eds.，Contesting Slavery: The Politics of Bondage and Freedom in the New American Nation（Charlottesville，VA，2011）．
(46) Jesse Torrey，A Portraiture of Domestic Slavery in the United States（Philadelphia，1817），39—40，33—34．
(47) Jesse Torrey，American Slave-Trade（London，1822），66—71．
(48) Robert Goodloe Harper，The Case of the Georgia Sales Reconsidered（Philadelphia，1797）; Abraham Bishop，The Georgia Speculation Unveiled（Hartford，CT，1797）．
(49) “Charleston” from Pennsylvania Packet，February 25，1790．
(50) Thomas Hart Benton，Abridgement of the Debates of Congress，from 1798 to 1856，223（March 1798）．
(51) Magrath，Yazoo，34—35．
(52) Klein，Unification，252—254; John Cummings and Joseph A Hill，Negro Population 1790—1915（Washington，1918），45，available at [domain]; Watson Jennison，Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia，1750—1860（Lexington，KY，2012）．
(53) NR，September 29，1821; Gerald T．Dunne，“Bushrod Washington and the Mount Vernon Slaves，”Supreme Court Historical Society Yearbook（1980）; Robert Gudmestad，A Troublesome Commerce: The Transformation of the Interstate Slave Trade（Baton Rouge，LA，2003），6—8．
(54) Thomas Jefferson to John Holmes，April 22，1820; Founders’ Constitution，1: 156; Jefferson，Notes on the State of Virginia，264．
(55) NR，September 1，1821．
(56) Ball，Slavery in the United States，86—91．
第2章
(1) Benjamin Latrobe，Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diary and Sketches，1818—1820，ed．Samuel Wilson Jr．（New York，1951），13—14; Frances Trollope，Domestic Manners of the Americans，ed．Pamela Neville-Sington（repr．London，1997），9—11; John Pintard to Sec．Treasury，September 14，1803，TP，9: 52—53．Cf．Amos Stoddard，Historical Sketches of Louisiana（Philadelphia，1812），159—160; James Pearse，Narrative of the Life of James Pearse（Rutland，VT，c．1826），16; H．Bellenden Ker，Travels Through the Western Interior of the United States（Elizabethtown，NJ，1816），36; Pierre-Louis Berquin-Duvallon，trans．John Davis，Travels in Louisiana and Florida in the Year 1802（New York，1806），8．
(2) TASTD; James McMillin，The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America，1783—1810（Columbia，SC，2004），23; Stephen Behrendt，David Eltis，and David Richardson，“The Costs of Coercion: African Agency in the Pre-Modern Atlantic World，”Economic History Review（n．s．）54，no．3（2001）: 454—476．
(3) Approval Alex．Clark，Bill of Lading，March 9，1807，Reel 1，Inward Manifests，New Orleans，RG 36，NA; John Lambert，Travels Through Canada and the United States of America，In the Years 1806，1807，and 1808（London，1816），2: 166．
(4) David Eltis，The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas（New York，2000）; Jo-seph C．Miller，Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade（Madison，WI，1988）; Robin C．Blackburn，Origins of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern，1492—1800（London，1997）．
(5) Sidney Mintz，Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History（New York，1985）; Stuart Schwartz，Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia，1550—1835（New York，1985）．
(6) M．L．E．Moreau de St．Méry，Description topographique，physique，civile，politique et historique de la partie francaise de l'isle Saint-Domingue … 2 vols．（Paris，1797）; Antonio Benitez-Rojo，The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective，trans．James Maraniss（Durham，NC，1992）．
(7) Mintz，Sweetness and Power; Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik，The World That Trade Created: Society，Culture，and the World Economy，1400 to the Present，2nd ed．（Armonk，NY，2000）; Kenneth C．Pomeranz，The Great Divergence: China，Europe，and the Making of the Modern World Economy（Berkeley，CA，2000），31—68; David Eltis，“Nutritional Trends in Africa and the Americas: Heights of Africans，1819—1839，”Journal of Interdisciplinary History 12（1982）: 453—475．
(8) Berquin-Duvallon，Travels in Louisiana，35—37．
